Semi-intensive Production Systems Research Articles

Reliability of udder infrared thermography as a non-invasive technology for early detection of sub-clinical mastitis in Sahiwal (Bos indicus) cows under semi-intensive production system

The present study focused on Sahiwal cows, a prominent milch breed in tropical India, to correlate udder temperature with physiological markers of stress and inflammation during subclinical mastitis (SCM). The primary goal was to assess the potential of udder infrared thermography for the early detection of SCM under the semi-intensive production. Cows were categorized based on milk somatic cell counts (SCC), with healthy (H) cows having SCC <2 × 105 cells/mL and no history of mastitis, and cows with subclinical mastitis (SCM) and initial stages of clinical mastitis (CM) having quarter milk SCC of 2–5 × 105 and >5 × 105 cells/mL, respectively. Firstly, udder thermograms were analysed for udder skin surface temperature (USST), teat skin surface temperature (TSST), and teat apex temperature (TAT) using Fluke software to determine the optimal site for temperature measurement during intramammary infection. Secondly, milk samples were collected for automatic estimation of compositional changes, electrical conductivity, and pH. Thirdly, milk whey was separated for quantifying stress and inflammatory indicators, including cortisol, prolactin, and acute-phase proteins (APPs): milk amyloid A and milk haptoglobin using bovine-specific ELISA kits. Significant increases (p < 0.01) in USST, TSST, TAT, cortisol, and APPs were observed in SCM and CM compared to healthy cows, while prolactin levels decreased (p < 0.01). The correlation matrix revealed strong positive correlations of SCC with USST (r = 0.84, p < 0.01). In ROC analysis, USST demonstrated cut-off values of 37.74 and 39.58 °C, with accuracy (p < 0.05) of 98% for SCM and 95% for CM, surpassing both TAT and TSST. Therefore, the combination of these non-invasive methods increases the reliability and accuracy of infrared thermography for early detection of SCM, providing valuable insights for the development of a protocol for routine screening and udder health monitoring in indigenous dairy cows.

Economic values of traits in the breeding goals defined by different dairy goat breeders' associations in Kenya.

The current study aimed at development of breeding objectives and estimation of the economic values for traits of economic importance to various dairy goat breeders associations. This was achieved through the development of a bio-economic model to derive economic values for the selected traits. The input and output parameters used represented the average performance of Saanen, Toggenburg and Alpine breeds. The gross margin was estimated using the R software. Economic values for milk yield (MY, kg), pre-weaning survival rate (PrSr, %), post-weaning survival rate, (PoSR, %), doe survival rate, (DoSR, %), and kidding rate, (Kr, %) were estimated based on fixed flock size and fixed feed resources scenarios. The findings indicate varied gross margin across the breeds; Saanen (US$ 116.17), Toggenburg (US$ 68.21) and Alpine (US$ -1.11). In both scenarios, the economic values in selected traits were positive for the three breeds except for milk yield in Alpine, which was negative in both fixed flock and fixed feed resources. The positive economic values of selected traits indicated a unit increase in genetic merit of these traits. The developed bio-economic model was able to estimate the gross margin of Saanen, Toggenburg and Alpine breeds represented by Nyanza Dairy Goat Breeders Association (NDGA), Meru Dairy Goat Breeders Association (MDGA) and Dairy Goat Association of Kenya (DGAK), respectively, reared under semi-intensive production system. The study offers an opportunity to evaluate genetic and economic merit of alternative strategies for dairy goats reared in semi-intensive production systems managed by various dairy goat breeders associations.

Variations in Composition, Antioxidant Profile, and Physical Traits of Goat Milk within the Semi-Intensive Production System in Mountainous Areas during the Post-Weaning to End-of-Lactation Period.

Dairy products from mountain-origin milk are known for their superior composition and quality. This study aimed to examine changes in composition, nutritional quality, and antioxidant properties of milk from semi-intensively managed goats in mountainous regions during the post-weaning to end-of-lactation period. Bulk tank milk samples from 10 farms were collected bi-weekly in the period from March to September. The farms were situated in regions with an average altitude of 772.20 m above sea level. The results revealed significant variations in milk composition, with fluctuations in fat, protein, lactose, and total solids. Milk yield per doe showed seasonal differences, with the highest yield in April and the lowest in September. Fatty acid composition exhibited changes throughout the sampling period, with variations in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Nutritional indices, such as the atherogenicity index and thrombogenicity index, remained within the recommended values. Antioxidant properties, including total phenolic content, DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS, showed significant differences, with higher values toward the end of the study. Milk pH, electrical conductivity, brix value, and refractive index also exhibited variations, while density and freezing point remained relatively stable. The study provided valuable information that can be used to develop breeding and feeding plans to achieve uniform milk quality in mountainous regions.

DETERMINANTS OF WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI) AMONG MUTURU CATTLE FARMERS IN IPOKIA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

This study examines the factors influencing willingness to pay (WTP) for artificial insemination (AI) in the Ipokia local government area. A two-stage sampling process was used to select 67 herders in Muturu. Descriptive statistics and logit regression models were used to analyze socioeconomic characteristics, willingness to pay, and related determinants. The results show that muturu cattle raising is mainly male farmers who are married and have relatively large families. The average size of a household is 8 people. The average age of muturu herders is 51 years old and their number of years of experience rearing muturu cattle is 14 years. More than half (56.7%) of farmers bought their own cattle. Only 58.2% participate in the semi-intensive production system. The average herd size is 5 Muturu. Most (77.6%) Muturu farmers have formal education and 70.1% of Muturu farmers are willing to pay for AI. The local name of the muturu in Ipokia is Oni. The factors that determine the willingness of muturu farmers to pay for AI are the muturu herds owned by them, their many years of experience with muturu cattle rearing, their husbandry methods, and their perceptions about the ease of handling muturu cattle. Farmers in Muturu should improve their production system and production scale. It is recommended to organize AI training for muturu cattle breeders because they are willing to pay for AI.&#x0D;  

Associação entre idade, peso e maturidade sexual em novilhas aneloradas da região do sul do Maranhão, Brasil

The work was carried out with the aim of disseminating the results obtained for producers in the reproductive sphere in the south of the state of Maranhão. Three rural properties with a semi-intensive production system were studied. Weight, age, race, Body Condition Score (BCS) and reproductive fitness response were collected. The evaluated animals had a weight greater than or equal to 280 kg/bw and aged over 12 months. The animals were divided according to age: group I- Animals between 12/24 months of age and group II- Animals between 24/36 months of age. The sexual maturity of the animal is totally linked with its age and weight.

Gender-Responsive Design of Bacteriophage Products to Enhance Adoption by Chicken Keepers in Kenya.

Women and men keeping chickens in Kenya aspire to have a source of income, feed their families healthy food, and grow their businesses. Managing animal diseases and minimizing input costs enable their success. This study uses qualitative methods to recommend design opportunities for a veterinary product under development in Kenya that contains bacteriophages (phages) that target pathogenic Salmonella strains responsible for fowl typhoid, salmonellosis, and pullorum in chickens and foodborne illness in people. Our findings revealed the interplay between gender and two production systems: free-range and semi-intensive. Chicken keepers in both systems could benefit from phages combined with the orally administered Newcastle disease vaccine, one of the most commonly used preventive veterinary interventions, or phages as a treatment for fowl typhoid. Oral administration is less labor intensive, with greater benefits for women who have less control over family labor and reported doing more care tasks themselves. Men in free-range systems usually pay for veterinary inputs. In semi-intensive production systems, a phage-based product used prophylactically could be an alternative to expensive, intramuscular fowl typhoid vaccines. Keeping layers was common for women in semi-intensive systems, as they are more economically impacted by reduced laying caused by bacterial diseases. Awareness of zoonoses was low, but men and women were concerned about the negative health effects of drug residues in meat and eggs. Therefore, highlighting the lack of a withdrawal period for a phage product may appeal to customers. Antibiotics are used to both treat and prevent diseases, and phage products will need to do both to compete in the Kenyan market. These findings guide the ongoing design of a phage-based product with the goal of introducing a new veterinary product that meets the diverse needs of chicken keepers in Africa and serves as an alternative or complement to antibiotics.

Small Ruminant Production and Marketing Practices in Harawa, Somali Region, Ethiopia

Small ruminant production is an essential component of agricultural activity for smallholder farmers. The aim of this study was to assess small ruminant production and marketing practices in the Harawa district of Somali Region, Ethiopia. For the study 90 households owning small ruminant were selected from three different towns of Harawa district. Information on sheep and goat ownership patterns, production objectives, and management and production constraints were collected from 90 households using semi structured questionnaires. The available feed resources are grass species, crop aftermath and legumes species are the common ones. The average family size was 5.78 ± 0.235 persons per household. Crop-livestock farming was the commonly used farming system with (62.75%) extensive and (27.25%) semi-intensive production system. The mean total land holding was 6.08 ± 0.24 ha per HH and was significantly (P is important.

Rumen Volatile Fatty Acids and Morphology of the Rumen Mucosa of Swamp Buffalo Raised under Semi-Intensive and Extensive System in Tropical Environment

Swamp buffaloes are mostly raised under an extensive system because they can adapt to the harsh environment. However, exploring the rumen mucosa (RM) morphology and volatile fatty acids (VFA) of swamp buffalo associated with different production systems is still lacking. This study evaluated the rumen VFA and morphology of RM between two groups of buffalo raised under semi-intensive (SI) and an extensive system (EX). VFA was analysed using gas chromatography. The morphology of rumen mucosa was evaluated macro and microscopically for papillae length and width, surface area, density, and muscle thickness, and the microscopic evaluation for stratified squamous epithelium (SSE) and keratin thickness. SI has a greater VFA concentration than the EX. The SSE layer on the dorsal region of the rumen was thicker in the EX group than in the SI group (p≤0.05). Within the group, the SSE of the dorsal region of rumen was thicker than the ventral region (p≤0.05) in the EX group. However, the ventral region of the rumen was thicker than the dorsal region in the SI group. The thickness of the keratin layer in the EX group was significantly thicker than the SI group (p≤0.05) only on the dorsal region. In conclusion, swamp buffalo from the SI production system has a greater concentration of volatile fatty acid than the EX-group contributed by feeding management under a semi-intensive system. Nevertheless, the advantage in VFA concentration alone is not sufficient to conclude semi-intensive production system exerts a favourable effect on the morphology of the rumen mucosa.

Seasonal Variations in Hematological and Serum Biochemical Parameters in Kiko Meat Goats under Semi-Intensive Management Systems

Hematological and serum biochemical profiles have been used in several species of domestic livestock to monitor herd health. Application of this technique to meat goats in semi-intensive production systems has been limited by a lack of suitable reference ranges for most of these parameters

The Technical Efficiency of Beef Calf Production Systems: Evidence from a Survey in Hebei, China

Beef calf production is a source of sustainable development for the beef cattle industry. However, no comparative studies have reported on the technical efficiency of different beef calf production systems and their influencing factors. Based on data from 218 Chinese farmers and 12 governments, in the present study, we constructed data envelopment analysis (DEA) models and conducted a comparative analysis of the technical efficiency of the main three beef calf production systems: the Simmental calf intensive production system (CIPS), Simmental calf semi-intensive production system (SCIPS) and Holstein bull calf intensive production system (BCIPS). Using Tobit models, we analyzed the effects of various factors. The results show that: (1) The technical efficiency of the production system of Simmental calf is higher than that of Holstein bull calf, and the efficiency of SCIPS is higher than that of CIPS. The technical efficiency (TE), pure technical efficiency (PTE) and scale efficiency (SE) of different systems are significantly different. (2) Policy on the environment positively affected (p &lt; 0.01) the TE, TPE and SE of CIPS, but negatively affected the PTE of SCIPS. Therefore, appropriate environmental regulations have a positive effect on production efficiency, which means that measures should be taken according to the reality and characteristics of the production system, and policies applicable to other systems or regions may not be applicable in a given case. (3) The management level and technology training had positive effects on the TE, TPE and SE of the three systems, while the number of years of production had a negative or no significant effect. Producers are not the “perfectly rational economic man”, and the more knowledge they have, the more productive they will be. However, the “knowledge” referred to here is that which is adapted to production, not that which is traditional. The knowledge possessed by the producer should be updated continuously with the changes over time and the development of the industry, while outdated information is not considered as “knowledge” here. Therefore, to achieve sustainability, the government should fully consider the characteristics of the local breeding mode and, more importantly, the expected effects of policies to be implemented.

The semi-intensive production model: A strategy based on emergy and economic analyses to realize sustainability in the ecosystem of Sistani beef cattle raising in Iran

Cattle rearing can benefit from the environmental support of native wetlands, through the establishment and proper management of units suitable for raising Sistani cattle ( Bos indicus ) around the Hamoun Wetland in the Sistan region of Iran. In this way, it is possible for cattle rearing to benefits from the environmental support of the wetland, thereby improving food security, fostering economic and social development, and contributing to the environmental protection of this sensitive region. In addition, helping to preserve the Sistani cattle breed, which is in danger of extinction, will be a significant benefit. This study was conducted from 2019 to 2020 on three different beef cattle production systems in the Sistan region. Both emergy and economic analyses were used to examine these production systems; 1) rearing the Sistani breed in an extensive production system, 2) rearing Sistani cattle in a semi-intensive production system, and 3) rearing an exotic breed within an intensive production system. In the extensive indigenous system, the amount of emergy supporting Sistani breed production was 2.30E+17 sej, which was less than the other two systems. Based on the economic output/input ratio (O/I EmV ), the yield of the Sistani breed in the semi-intensive system was 62% higher than that breed in an open system and 84% higher than exotic breeds in the intensive system. The values of the Emergy Exchange Ratio (EER), Transformity (Tr), and Specific Emergy (SpE) indices revealed that the Sistani breed outperformed the open system by 1.5 times and the exotic breed by 2 times in the intensive system. However, the sustainability of the Sistani breed raised under extensive and semi-intensive production systems is not guaranteed in the long run, given their dependence on production from the Hamoun wetland and the long-term meteorological data on declining rainfall, as well as, the decisions of Afghanistan, on the allocation of water rights to the upper watershed and to the downstream wetlands, which poses the risk of reducing the free environmental resources supplied to the Iranian wetland system. Due to these risk factors, designing the system for Sistani cattle raising as a semi-intensive production system is recommended as the way to most reliably attain the aforementioned benefits. • Emergy evaluation can be successful in selecting the right production model to improve the agroecosystems sustainability. • The structure and quantity of purchased inputs differed greatly across the systems studied. • Analyzing the economic and environmental condition of agro-ecosystems may assist evaluate their overall sustainability. • Emergy analysis is a comprehensive and explanatory method for assessing the sustainability of agro-ecosystems.

Sistemas de producción de pequeños rumiantes en México y su efecto en la sostenibilidad productiva

En el sector de los pequeños rumiantes existe un gran interés en medir y mejorar sus sistemas de producción y desempeño ambiental, pues poseen una gran adaptabilidad y habitan distintos ecosistemas, con una gran biodiversidad de recursos alimenticios, el pastoreo genera beneficios económico-productivos y medio ambientales. Pero, el manejo no planificado y la sobreexplotación de recursos naturales de estas zonas han ocasionado erosión, agotamiento del agua y desertificación, lo mismo ocurre con los sistemas intensivos de producción y la agricultura que alimenta estas explotaciones. Para comparar innovaciones científicas en la sustentabilidad de los diferentes sistemas de producción de pequeños rumiantes, se realizó un análisis bibliométrico para describir las ventajas y desventajas del manejo de los sistemas de producción extensivos, semi-intensivos e intensivos en la sustentabilidad de pequeños rumiantes. Existe una preocupación de la sociedad por el impacto ambiental de los sistemas de producción y que se realicen de manera sustentable. Esta tendencia influye en la producción de ovinos, cabras y venado cola blanca, que se desarrollan en sistemas intensivos, semi-extensivos y extensivos. Dada la presión para aumentar el volumen y la eficiencia de la producción, los sistemas intensivos son más adecuados, pero enfrentan mayores problemas ambientales como, la emisión gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) y de bienestar animal. Por otro lado, los sistemas semi-extensivos y extensivos también producen GEI, pero se asocian con mayor bienestar animal y producción más limpia, pero se ven afectados por las variaciones estacionales para la producción de forraje para mantener los niveles de producción.

Transcriptional Profile and Meat Quality Attributes of Abo-Deleek Lambs Managed under Intensive and Semi-Intensive Production Systems of Egypt

Transcriptional Profile and Meat Quality Attributes of Abo-Deleek Lambs Managed under Intensive and Semi-Intensive Production Systems of Egypt

Taxonomy and Functional Diversity in the Fecal Microbiome of Beef Cattle Reared in Brazilian Traditional and Semi-Intensive Production Systems.

The importance of beef production for economy of Brazil and the growing demand for animal protein across the globe warrant an improvement in the beef production system. Although most attention has been on modulation of the rumen microbiome to improve ruminant production, the role of the lower gut microbiome in host health and nutrition remains relatively unexplored. This work aimed to investigate the taxonomy and functional variations in the fecal microbiome of Brazilian beef cattle reared in two different production systems using a metagenomic approach. Sixty male beef cattle from six farms representing semi-intensive (I, n = 2) and traditional (T, n = 4) Brazilian beef production systems were enrolled in the study. Shotgun sequencing was used to characterize taxonomic and functional composition and diversity of the microbiome in fecal samples collected from each animal. Fecal samples were analyzed for copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn) and stable isotopes of carbon (13C) and nitrogen (15N). The fecal microbiome was influenced by the beef production systems with greater functional and lower taxonomic diversity in beef cattle feces from I systems compared with that from T systems. The concentration of N, P, and Zn was higher in beef cattle feces from I systems compared with that from T systems and was associated with taxonomic and functional profile of fecal microbiome in I system, suggesting the role of fecal nutrients in shaping system-specific microbiome. Semi-intensive management practices led to a more complex but less connected fecal microbiome in beef cattle. The microbial community in beef cattle feces from I systems was characterized by greater abundance of beneficial bacteria (phylum Firmicutes and butyrate-producing bacteria family Lachnospiraceae and genera Anaerostipes, Blautia, Butyrivibrio, Eubacterium, Roseburia, and Ruminococcus). In addition, the fecal abundance of microbial genes related to immune system, nutrient metabolism, and energy production was greater in beef cattle raised under I systems compared with that under T systems. Findings of the current study suggest that semi-intensive management practices could facilitate the development of a healthier and more efficient fecal microbiome in beef cattle by driving an increase in the abundance of beneficial bacteria and functional genes.

Dairy goat welfare in semi-intensive production systems and drought conditions

AbstractThe region of Coquimbo has the highest percentage of goats (Capra hircus) in Chile and is severely affected by droughts. This can lead to environmental challenges such as limited water and forage availability when goats are kept in natural grasslands. The objective of this study was to assess the welfare of dairy goats in semi-intensive production systems under drought conditions. The study was carried out in La Serena city, region of Coquimbo, Chile and 22 semi-intensive dairy goat farms were assessed using the Animal Welfare Indicators protocol. In each evaluation, the following indicators and information were gathered: physical and behavioural indicators of animal welfare, farmers’ sociodemographic information, farm facilities, husbandry practices and management of the farm, and farmers’ perception of animal welfare. Of the goats evaluated (n = 446), the vast majority had a body condition score (BCS) considered normal (n = 349; 78.25%). The main welfare problems were poor hair condition, faecal soiling, overgrown claws and improper disbudding or dehorning. The majority of farmers (96%) considered it ‘rather important’ or ‘very important’ to handle their goats in a gentle manner, expressing concern about the welfare of their animals and considering pain as a negative experience for goats. A lower than expected percentage of very thin animals (low BCS) were seen, considering the drought conditions and the forage shortage that affects the region, and no animals were observed with signs of thermal stress. The semi-intensive production systems could be an alternative to pasture-based systems to overcome environmental challenges.

Effects of Intensive and Semi-Intensive Production on Sheep Milk Chemical Composition, Physicochemical Characteristics, Fatty Acid Profile, and Nutritional Indices.

Simple SummaryIntensive and semi-intensive sheep farming are the two farming systems usually employed in Greece. Several studies have been conducted on the effect of the farming system on sheep milk fatty acid composition. This study simultaneously examines milk basic composition, physicochemical characteristics, fatty acid composition, and nutritional value according to the production system. Bulk tank milk from farms using the intensive and semi-intensive production systems was analyzed. The results show that grazing can improve the fatty acid composition of milk. Thus, pasture-based feeding strategies could improve the fatty acid composition and the nutritional properties of sheep dairy products.Dairy sheep farming is a vital sector of the agricultural economy in Greece. Information on the effect of the farming system on sheep milk characteristics is critical for producing dairy products with improved nutritional value according to the current guidelines for healthy food consumption. This study aimed to investigate the basic composition, physicochemical characteristics, fatty acid composition, and nutritional indices of milk produced in intensive and semi-intensive sheep farms. Bulk tank milk samples from 20 intensive and 20 semi-intensive sheep farms were examined. Sheep in the intensive farms were kept indoors and were fed with roughage, silage, and concentrates. Sheep in the semi-intensive farms were kept indoors during the night and were moved to the pastures during the day. Sheep were fed with roughage, silage, and concentrates in combination with grazing. Milk composition and somatic cell count were determined with automatic analyzers. The physicochemical characteristics were determined with standard laboratory methods. The fatty acid composition was analyzed by gas chromatography. The farming system did not affect milk chemical composition and physicochemical characteristics. However, milk fatty acid composition and nutritional value were significantly improved in milk from farms using the semi-intensive production system, and this favorable effect was attributed to the inclusion of pasture in sheep diet.

Effect of Intensification Practices, Lambing Period and Environmental Parameters on Animal Health, and Milk Yield and Quality in Dairy Sheep Production Systems on Crete

Due to increasing demand, many traditional, grazing-based Mediterranean sheep production systems have introduced intensified feeding regimes, increased investments in infrastructure and drug use to increase milk yields. However, compared to bovine milk production systems, there is limited knowledge about the impact of these intensification practices on animal welfare and health and on the quality of dairy products. The aim of this study was therefore to quantify the effects of management practices and environmental conditions background on udder health, parasitism and milk quantity and quality in Cretan traditional production systems. Milk yields were higher in semi-intensive production systems while concentrations of several nutritionally desirable compounds such as omega-3 fatty acids were found to be higher in milk from extensive systems. Antibiotic and anthelmintic use was relatively low in both extensive and semi-intensive production systems. There was no substantial difference in parasitic burden, somatic cell counts, and microbiological parameters assessed in milk. Recording of flock health parameters showed that animal health and welfare was high in both extensive and semi-intensively managed flocks, and that overall, the health status of extensively managed ewes was slightly better. In contrast, environmental conditions (temperature and rainfall) had a substantial effect on parasitism and milk quality.

Parâmetros técnicos para outorga de direito de uso da água para aquicultura no estado de Santa Catarina, Brasil

The state of Santa Catarina, Brazil, does not have the technical parameters defined for the granting of the right to use water for the aquaculture activity, therefore, in the licensing process, producers eligible for water allocation are exempted. This work aims to identify the failures of this process and to establish a proposed model of parameters for water resources allocation for aquaculture in the state. The demand for water to supply the activity will depend on the cultivation area installed, losses due to infiltration according to the type of soil, losses due to the evaporation rate, the precipitated volume and the renewal rates of the system. Using the EPAGRI/CEDAP database, it was possible to determine the main cultivated species and the cultivation systems established in the state, with the most cultivated species being tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), varied carp species in polyculture, white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The cultivation systems are mostly developed in excavated nurseries, with the semi-intensive production system being the most usual, followed by the intensive and extensive, respectively. In the intensive system, the species demands high rates of renewal (100% per hour), the semi-intensive system requires low renewals (5% per day). The main difficulties related to the implementation of the water allocation in the state of Santa Catarina involve technical, administrative and availability of water resources.

Technical Efficiency of Traditional Village Chicken Production in Africa: Entry Points for Sustainable Transformation and Improved Livelihood

Increasing poultry product consumption trends have attracted researchers and development practitioners to look for interventions that transform the low-input low-output-based village chicken production to a high yielding production system. However, due to the intricate nature of the production system, there is a dearth of evidence that helps design comprehensive interventions at the smallholder level. Using national-level representative data collected from 3555 village chicken producers in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Tanzania, this study examines the technical efficiency of village chicken production and investigates the main factors that explain the level of inefficiency. We applied a stochastic frontier analysis to simultaneously quantify the level of technical efficiency and identify factors associated with heterogeneity in inefficiency. We found that the level of technical efficiency is extremely low in the three countries, suggesting enormous opportunities to enhance productivity using available resources. The heterogeneity in technical efficiency is strongly associated with producers’ experience in breed improvements and flock management, limited technical knowledge and skills, limited access to institutions and markets, smaller flock size, gender disparities, and household livelihood orientation. We argue the need to adopt an integrated approach to enhance village producers’ productivity and transform the traditional subsistence-based production system into a commercially oriented semi-intensive production system.

Silvipastoral systems: how to use them for carbon neutral milk production?

The potential of tree component neutralization was studied to understand the relationship between livestock, forest production and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The objective of this work was to evaluate the carbon balance in a silvopastoral system including semi-intensive dairy farming and to quantify emissions per unit milk produced in Visconde do Rio Branco, Minas Gerais state, Brazil. The tree component of the silvopastoral system was a hybrid of Eucalyptus grandis x Eucalyptus urophylla in a semi-intensive production system, including Brachiaria decumbes as forage grass and crossbred dairy cow. Carbon stock was calculated from the estimated wood volume with forest inventory data, wood density and wood carbon content factor for tree species. Livestock (enteric fermentation and animal waste management), electricity, fuel consumption, nitrogen and limestone fertilization were the GHG emissions considered using emission factors. The carbon balance was obtained by comparing annually the GHG emissions with the increase of this element. The Average Annual Carbon Increment (IMAC) was 7.631 Mg CO2e ha−1 year−1 and the Annual Average Emission of 5.817 Mg CO2e ha−1 year−1. The carbon balance, in all the years, was positive evidencing the contribution of the silvopastoral system to minimize GHG emissions and neutralize the emissions in milk production.